Teaching Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is viewed by most people as a core objective of education. Good critical thinking skills are related to numerous key factors including being able to navigate life successfully, citizenship, creativity, lifelong learning and empathy (Browne & Keeley, 2007; Moon, 2008; Terenzini, Springer, Pascarella & Noura, 1995). However, teaching critical thinking is a major challenge in a fast-paced world where students are continually bombarded with information. Some say that we are downing in information but starved for knowledge.

There are a number of strategies for teaching critical thinking but here are five of the major ones (Browne & Keely, 2007; Moon, 2008; Terenzini et al, 1995).


1. We need to give students an understanding of the theory of critical thinking. Most people only have a very superficial knowledge of critical thinking.

2. We need to encourage critical thinking using discussion topics that are meaningful and rich in subject matter to students. This means using topics that they can relate to their peronal experiences and interests.

3. We need to challenge students to question their views and take them “beyond their comfort zone of learning.” Pretty much everything is subjective and comes down to philosophy.

4. We need to ensure that we have a class atmosphere that will tolerate risk-taking. Questioning needs to be valued at all levels of learning - why, why, why?

5. Teachers need to model critical thinking. This means not only teaching the content of a subject but questioning that content. The textbooks will change but critical thinking will never go out of style.

Thinking critically should be a major goal for all of us, all the time. As Paul, Elder & Bartell (2004: 2) note, “Human thinking left to itself often gravitates toward prejudice, over-generalization, common fallacies, self-deception, rigidity, and narrowness.”

References:

Browne, N. & Keeley, S. (2007). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking, 8th edition. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Moon, J. (2008). Critical Thinking: An exploration of theory and practice. New York: Routledge.

Paul, R.; Elder, L., & Bartell, T. (2004). Study of 38 public universities and 28 private universities to determine faculty emphasis on critical thinking in instruction. Executive summary. Retrieved September 15, 2012, from www.criticalthinking.org/about/ centerforCT.shtml

Terenzini, P.; Springer, L.; Pascarella, E. & Noura, A. (1995). Influences affecting the development of students critical thinking skills. Research in Higher Education 36 (1), 23-39.

Values to Actions

How should you live? What do you stand for? Determining what is important to us can be difficult and then there is the greater challenge of putting our words into actions. The most important task is to figure out what we value. Values can be divided into two categories, terminal values and instrumental values. Terminal values are the things we want to achieve in life, such as, having a family, making a sum of money, etc. Instrumental values are more about how we want to live our lives, such as, being honest, humble, loving, etc. Terminal values are nice to achieve. It feels good to achieve our goals. But the feeling we get from achievement doesn't last and goals can be susceptible to many outside forces. And we know that suceess and achievement goals doesn't automatically make our lives meaningful and happy. However, instrumental values are about how we choose to face the world and this we can control. We have the power to choose how we face each day. And ultimately, our life is made up of those daily experiences.

Work & Meaning

For the most part, work has been traditionally regarded as a “separate” sphere of life (work/life balance) however work is only one aspect of life and only part of a much greater context within which we reside. Therefore, we cannot understand work separate from our existential self; that work must be viewed in terms of its relationship to the formation of who we are. Most scholars agree that a meaningful life is determined by how the individual subjectively experiences his or her “puzzle of life,” and therefore makes sense of his or her life. It is clear there are no absolute answers when it comes to the meaningful life, and that there is more confusion than ever with what is considered a meaningful life. For many people, work is a major, if not the most important, piece of that puzzle. Ultimately, the pieces that make up our lives, especially our work life, must fit coherently together in order for us to feel that life is meaningful.   

Death

From an existential point of view, how we view death is of paramount importance to how we view life. If we do not face death we may put off new choices believing that it is not the “right time” for change. We may live an inauthentic life and console ourselves with the belief that “someday” I will live a different life and thus, live authentically. For example, despite engaging in a type of work that we know is not what we want to be doing and knowing we are in a state of inauthenticity, we may stay in this circumstance for many years. This is especially true of those who want to deny their freedom, those who live as if they will live forever, not realizing there is a time limit on their existence. Without facing the fact that we are mortal and will eventually die, we may not make the difficult choices towards living authentically but instead opt for the path of least resistance. Maybe the most important aspect of life is how we die. Do we die with contentment for the life we have lived or do we die with many regrets for experiences not lived? Perhaps it is easier to accept death if we feel that we have experienced life, even briefly, the way we had pictured it for ourselves when we were young, and we did not live a state of continuous desire for something more or different. 

What is the purpose of a university education?

There is currently a dilemma within higher education. What is the purpose of a university education? Is it the pursuit of knowledge or is to prepare people for jobs? Historically, universities were for the elite and the purpose was the pursuit of higher knowledge. But times have fortunately changed, and now a university education is within the grasp of many people. Students today view a university degree as a necessary requirement to finding valued employment. For them, it's about job preparation, what formerly was the domain of trade schools and community colleges. On the other hand, most academics would still argue that the purpose is the pursuit of higher knowledge, not job preparation. I suggest that we need to do both but this means changing the current system. We need to figure out a way to combine the pursuit of knowledge with the development of the skills required for work. To do this we have to revamp the current curriculum so that the degree program includes the development of the skills the work world requires. We need to review the core objectives of each degree program. Then we need to ensure that the individual courses within the program align with the objectives of the degree. This is a challenging task and will involve much thought. Most importantly, it will take a new attitude from the people involved at all levels in higher education. The reward is that we will end up with a university program that has regained its relevance, one that encompasses both the pursuit of knowledge and the development of the key skills needed for the work world.

Work-Life Balance?

"Reflecting on the meaning of life may be spurred by psychological crisis but it may also arise from an acute awareness that Henry David Thoreau was correct: most people do lead lives of quiet desperation" (Belliotti, 2001: 10).

Albert Camus’ legendary Myth of Sisyphus demonstrated what could arguably be the predicament of the human condition, in relation to work but also to life in general. Sisyphus is condemned by the Gods to push a stone up a hill only to have it roll back down, and this continues forever (Camus, 1967). Although some people love their work and their life, this picture of the futile life is undoubtedly the case for many others whether they would choose to admit it or not. For a significant number of people, life and work, can be mostly daily drudgery, a treadmill of existence from which they cannot get off, and from which they gradually watch time and their life pass by. As has been frequently pointed out life is an unpredictable journey, and we are not given a set of rules to help us make choices and ultimately, live our lives. A life is made up of various parts and work is only one of potentially many “places” where meaning is created or found. The challenge for all of us is to make sense of the puzzle of life, choose the pieces of our lives and determine how they fit together.

References:

Belliotti, R. A. (2001). What is the meaning of human life? Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi B.V.

Camus, A. (1967). The myth of Sisyphus (J. O'Brien, Trans.). In A. Camus (Ed.), The myth of Sisyphus and other essays (pp. 1-138). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Jack Layton

Like most people, I have been affected by the recent death of Jack Layton, the federal leader of the NDP party. I didn't follow the details of his career that closely however as I read more about him, I am very impressed by his life and the humanity he demonstrated throughout. He lived a principled life and sought to make a better world for all, one that provides equal opportunity for all people. It is easy to lose ourselves in our own daily problems and immerse ourselves in our lives. Jack Layton cared deeply about others and the future of Canada and the world. Even on his deathbed he was thinking about others and how the battle for social justice would be continued. He left us with a simple but powerful message.

"My friends, love is better than anger. Hope is better than fear. Optimism is better than despair. So let us be loving, hopeful and optimistic. And we’ll change the world." - Jack Layton

It is a great message for all of us.

Life is not a spectator sport

The fear of failure is very powerful. It holds us back throughout life and is the greatest obstacle to reaching our full potential. It prevents us from applying for that new job position, going back to university, taking that trip alone, or entering that 10 km run. The victory in life is in taking part, not the outcome. The only “win” in life is to live a meaningful and hopefully happy life, to be able to look back on the life you’ve lived with few regrets. To do this, you have to have the experiences that you truly desire and take part in the things that are important to you. One of the problems in life is the belief that everything’s about “winning or losing.” It’s not. You don’t win the game of life, nor do you lose it. The only question is, do you live it the way you want to or not? It’s not about being the best student or the best athlete, or making the most money. There will always be someone better at something than you are, no matter who you are. New inventions will be designed better than the old. Athletic records are sure to be broken with time. What matters, is that you show up for the fight and take part. The goal is to be engaged, to not sit on the sidelines and watch, but instead to play the game of life and do the best that you can. The only real failure is when we let our fears keep us on the sidelines watching the race, instead of taking part.

The Need for Critical Thinking

In a world that continually pressures us to conform, it can be difficult living up to the things wwe truly believe in. We are are bombarded with huge amounts of information daily and constantly pressured to go along with the opinions of the majority. However, the majority can be wrong and each of us must come to our own conclusions in this life. This means we need to be good critical thinkers which research shows we're not. Critical thinking is the ability to gather information and as objectively we can, come to our own conclusion. Unfortunately critical thinking is hard work and we often take the path of least resistance. For example, it's easy to criticize our political leaders for spending cuts to education and healthcare. But what would you do if you were in their place? The economic situation means that choices must be made. Either we cut here or we cut there or perhaps we raise taxes. None of these options are attractive but choices must still be made. The challenge is to learn as much as you can about issues, think deeply about them and then make a decision. And, always recognize that you may be wrong.

Facing our Problems

I was recently asked why we allow great injustices to go on all around us. We have many problems in our world - conflict, discrimination, and great inequity to name a few. An overwhelming number of people are struggling with basic survival and a lack of opportunities in life. Many young people do not have the opportunity to go to university which can change their future. All of us know these problems exist yet we rarely do something about them. Unfortunately, we get caught up in living our daily lives and we don't always pay attention to what is going on around us. Research indicates that we are becoming less empathetic to other people's problems. This should be a major cause for concern. We should care about what goes on in our communities. We should care about what happens on this planet. The challenge for all of us is to admit when the "emperor has no clothes" as opposed to ignoring it.We have a choice. We can put our heads in the sand and be oblivious to suffering. Or we can face it and change it. I'll continue with this topic in future posts.

Meaning in Work

In his now classic book, Man’s Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl eloquently argued that “Man’s search for meaning is the primary motivation in his life and not a ‘secondary rationalization’ of instinctual drives. This meaning is unique and specific in that it must and can be fulfilled by him alone; only then does it achieve a significance which will satisfy his own will to meaning” (1985: 121). Because of my own research on meaning in work, I frequently ask people the questions, “what do you believe is the meaning of life?” and “what is a meaningful life for you?” and I receive a wide variety of responses. For some, what constitutes a meaningful life is relatively clear and easy to identify and achieve (e.g., family); for some it is an elusive goal, while others do not even want to think about the question. Subsequently, if I ask the question “what is the meaning or impact of your work?” I get responses ranging from “simply a way to make money” to “the most important part of my life.” It is great when work is very meaningful to us however this also puts a great deal of pressure on our work life. Additionally, when work is our primary source of meaning in life, we are extremely vulnerable to what happens in the workplace each day. Whereas some people may want their work to be very meaningful, others may simply want work that they enjoy and that fits well with their non-work life. The “right” choice of work is dependent on the individual determining what he or she needs from work. Ultimately, the pieces that make up a life, especially one’s work life, must fit coherently together in order for one to feel that life is meaningful. And inevitably there will be ebbs and flows in a life and other aspects of life will emerge which will affect work.

Health and Fitness Top Ten

Here's my top ten for being healthy and fit:

1. Walk as much as possible - even short walks can be great

2. Take the stairs

3. Do some activity first thing in the morning - it gets the metabolism going

4. Get up from your desk each hour

5. Strength train - build those muscles

6. Minimize sugars and starches

7. Drink lots of water

8. Take up a new activity periodically

9. Exercise with friends/family - it's fun and you're more likely to stick with it

10. Join a gym

Keep in mind that activity is cumulative, everything you do adds up. The more you move, the better.

Why live the “Examined Life?”

Socrates famously noted, “The unexamined life is not worth living” which can also be called the sleepwalked or unconscious life. But why is it better to live the examined life instead of the unexamined life? Continually evaluating our lives and questioning how we’re living seems potentially fraught with problems. Aren’t we always going to find fault with our lives? What if we don’t like what we see but we can’t do anything about it? Isn’t it better just to focus on living our daily lives and being happy?

For some people the unexamined life may work out fine but I believe that we should live the examined life and always be questioning our lives. If we don’t examine our lives, we may inadvertently live the life that we don’t really want to live. We may spend our life pursuing things that in the end really don’t matter to us, in jobs that we don’t enjoy or relationships that aren’t what we want. We may drift through life without thinking too much about how we are living and not paying attention to the passage of time as we get older. But time does pass for all of us and eventually we will wake up one day realizing that we’re no longer a young person and that our choices are now more limited. We may put off aspirations waiting until the day we retire, such as travel but when we finally do retire, we no longer have the good health we need to travel. Examining our lives and living consciously help us avoid this possibility so that we freely choose our lives.

The ability to question our lives is also a part of what makes us human. We are conscious beings, conscious of our thoughts and the world around us. To not question our lives is to deny that humanity, to deny what makes us really human. But there is a price to be paid for living the examined life. It is not easy as all of us go through the ebbs and flows of life. Some of our dreams will be fulfilled while others will not be. We will have our good times and our bad. This is the human condition. But as long as we live the examined life, at least it will be our life, the one we consciously choose and not one that we sleepwalk through.

Should ethics courses be mandatory at business schools?

There is a heated debate these days on whether or not ethics courses should be mandatory at business schools. Many scholars argue that given all of the ethical problems in business today, ethics should, of course, be compulsory for all business students. They say that the problem of unethical behaviour is so acute that all business courses should be taught through an "ethical" lens. Others argue that ethics courses should not be mandatory because a university should not be teaching morality and telling students what is right versus wrong. Those who teach ethics courses comment that whereas some students seem to benefit from them, other students seem to get little out of them. This debate involves a number of issues. Why aren't people ethical? Whose responsibility is it to teach ethical behaviour? What is the purpose of a business school? I believe that we should be discussing ethical issues with our students but that there is an underlying problem which must first be addressed. This is a lack of critical thinking education. How do we teach ethical decision-making to people who don't think critically? It's difficult for us to understand and make ethical decisions if we can't analyze an issue from different perspectives, have empathy for others, and take into account the effects of our actions on other people. I suggest that we need to first focus on teaching students to be good critical thinkers. Only then can we have the ethics discussion. Increasing the critical thinking ability of our students will probably impact ethical behaviour positively far more than anything else we could do. Perhaps it's not an "ethical" lens that we need to emphasize in business schools, but rather a "thinking" lens.